Space - Grade 6

• describe the physical characteristics of components of the solar system; specifically, the sun, planets, moons, comets, asteroids, and meteors
• describe how astronauts are able to meet their basic needs in space
• demonstrate and explain the importance of selecting appropriate processes for investigating scientific questions and solving technological problems
• demonstrate the importance of using the languages of science and technology to compare and communicate ideas, processes, and results
• identify and control major variables in their investigations
• plan a set of steps to solve a practical problem and to carry out a fair test of a science-related idea
• compile and display data, by hand or by computer, in a variety of formats including frequency tallies, tables, and bar graphs
• draw a conclusion, based on evidence gathered through research and observation, that answers an initial question
• select and use tools in manipulating materials and in building models
• record observations using a single word, notes in point form, sentences, and simple diagrams and charts
• identify and use a variety of sources and technologies to gather pertinent information
• communicate procedures and results, using lists, notes in point form, sentences, charts, graphs, drawings, and oral language

Thermodynamics - Grade 7

• explain temperature using the concept of kinetic energy and the particle model of matter
• explain how each state of matter reacts to changes in temperature
• explain changes of state using the particle model of matter
• compare transmission of heat by conduction, convection, and radiation
• describe how an individual's needs can lead to developments in science and technology
• compile and display data, by hand or computer, in a variety of formats, including diagrams, flow charts, tables, bar graphs, line graphs, and scatter plots
• state a conclusion, based on experimental data, and explain how evidence gathered supports or refutes an initial idea
• identify and evaluate potential applications of findings
• select appropriate methods and tools for collecting data and information and for solving problems
• communicate questions, ideas, intentions, plans and results, using lists, notes in point form, sentences, data tables, graphs, drawings, oral language, and other means

The Earth on the other hand receives about 1000 watts per square metre at sea level, (the atmosphere absorbing and scattering about 300 watts per square metre of the Sun's radiation before it reaches sea level).

On Mars, solar panels must be almost twice as large as solar panels on Earth to generate the same amount of electricity.

In other words, the solar irradiation at an elevation of 36 degrees, (above the horizon), on Earth is equivalent to the solar irradiation on Mars when the Sun is directly overhead.

The midsummer Sun on Mars provides much less heat than the Sun on Earth at the mid-latitudes on a very cold January day.

One of the many features seen in the photosphere are sunspots, huge magnetic storms on the Sun. Associated with sunspots are a phenomena known as solar flares.

Solar flares are first detected as huge arcs and jets of bright luminous matter erupting from the regions near sunspots. The light from a solar flare reaches interplanetary space between the Earth and Mars in 10 to 15 minutes.

Unseen, are intense beams of solar cosmic rays, (mostly protons and electrons), which are ejected by solar flares at speeds much less than the speed of light ... so they do not arrive in the interplanetary space between the Earth and Mars for a few hours and sometimes for as long as a few days after a solar flare is seen.

The danger is that the sunspot/solar-flare frequency is only a statistical pattern. Solar flares can occur anytime, albeit with less probability at a sunspot minimum.

Should a large solar flare be seen during a space mission, astronauts will have only a few hours in which to take whatever actions they have available to protect themselves from the solar cosmic rays.

The radiation produced by a major flare cannot only damage or destroy electronic equipment, but it can be lethal to humans.

On Earth the atmosphere gives us an almost perfect layer of protection from solar cosmic rays, but Mars on the other hand has an atmosphere that is so thin that it provides almost no protection whatsoever.

Travelers to Mars and explorers on Mars will need to have plans in place so that they can take shelter in the event of a large solar flare.

The Sunspot Cycle

In the process, the absorbed energy creates the atmospheric dynamics of wind and weather. All of this energy is eventually degraded into thermal radiation at infrared wavelengths and radiated into space.

When the Earth's surface becomes warm the atmosphere becomes unstable and convection begins. In the case of thunderstorms, the rising air, driven by convection, cools, but the presence of condensing water vapour releases more heat which further accelerates the convection.

This "runaway" convection, largely driven by the latent heat of condensation, gives rise to the most powerful storms on the planet ... the towering cumulonimbus clouds of violent thunderstorms.

However because the surface of Mars is exposed to direct sunlight, without clouds or water to reflect the radiation back into space, the thin atmosphere of Mars close to the surface can become much hotter than the atmosphere above it.

This very large temperature gradient in the atmosphere can produce very strong winds, capable of creating dust storms on the scale of the planet itself.

In addition to large dust storms, the surface of Mars is raked with frequent, and strong dust devils.

Luckily, at least in terms of weather, the density of the Martian atmosphere is very low, and therefore the impact of 100km/h winds on Mars is much less than similar winds would be on Earth.

To investigate planetary erosion we will need to build three simulators, one each for the Earth, the Moon and Mars.

The diagram below illustrates the materials needed and the structure of a simple simulator. Use clean, dry sand and contour the surface to create hills and valleys and craters. Note: experience has shown that different types of sand will exhibit quite different erosion properties. You may want to try the simulation with masonry sand, (sharp and uniform), available at hardware stores, and sand from a local river or beach, (non-uniform and softer), and compare the results.

Each simulator will be placed in an environment which is somewhat similar to the real surface conditions, (as described below), and then changes in the surface will be monitored.

Since this simulator is designed to study terrestrial erosion and since we are performing this simulation on the Earth's surface, this simulated surface can be placed out-of-doors exactly as you have built it without any weather protection.

The Lunar surface has neither wind nor rain, so this simulator must be protected from both of these weather elements. This is accomplished by placing a clear transparent weather proof shield around the simulator.

The plastic wrap not only prevents wind and rain erosion but it also helps to contribute to extreme temperature variations within the simulator, in a manner that resembles the extreme surface temperature on the Lunar surface.

The Martian surface must also be protected from rain since there is no rain produced in the Martian weather.

There are however significant winds in the Martian atmosphere. Therefore a simple plastic "roof" over the simulator will allow wind to affect the surface, while keeping out the rain.

The plastic roof should be slightly larger than the simulated surface to prevent wind-drift from letting rain intrude into the soil.

Also, Mars is further from the Sun than the Earth. To help simulate the effect of reduced sunlight on the Martian surface the plastic is translucent, thereby reducing the intensity of sunlight.

Try to select a secluded area where they will not be disturbed by curious passersby or roaming animals such as cats or squirrels.

Set up a journal. Organize it so there are sections to:

• state the purpose of the simulation
• describe the process you used to design and build your planetary erosion simulator(s)
• predict the outcome of the simulation
• record your daily observations
• make sketches and take photographs to document your observations
• compare your observations to your predictions
• state your final conclusions
• record new questions that might arise from what you've observed/learned.

Leave the simulators undisturbed for several weeks, (or longer if possible). Inspect them daily and note any changes as well as the weather conditions during the previous 24 hour period in your journal.

1. Which simulated planetary surface seemed to erode the most quickly?
2. Which simulated planetary surface seemed to erode the least quickly?
3. Early in the history of the solar system the Earth, the Moon and Mars were heavily cratered by the impacts of material raining down on them from the debris in space that was gradually accreting into lumps that eventually became the planets and their moons.
   1. Based on your observations of the erosion patterns in your simulators, decide which of the Moon, the Earth or Mars is least likely to show evidence of heavy cratering?
   2. Which is most likely to show evidence of heavy cratering?
   3. Locate and examine photographs of Earth's surface, the Moon's surface and Mars' surface. How does the evidence provided by your erosion simulation compare with the surfaces in your photographs?